Your breaker did not trip because you weren't consuming more than 20ish amps (assuming a 20A circuit). It doesn't--indeed cannot--measure temperature at the end of the extension cord. If it could, you would have a hard time running e.g. a clothes iron.
The adapter and extension cord probably got hot because of a poor or loose connection in the plug, adapter, or cord socket--if a hockey puck style adapter, most likely the adapter. All three should be replaced since all three got quite hot. If the entire cord was hot, it may be too light of a gauge to safely use for the continuous high load of the air conditioner, but I suspect that was not the primary problem. Cords in the hot sun can get pretty warm without any electricity flowing through them, particularly if dark colored.