Turtle n Peeps wrote:
Here you go Time. Exactly as I said.
Looks exactly the opposite to me:
Invention and development
Varta lithium-ion battery, Museum Autovision, Altlussheim, Germany
Lithium batteries were proposed by British chemist M Stanley Whittingham, now at Binghamton University, while working for Exxon in the 1970s.[23] Whittingham used titanium(IV) sulfide and lithium metal as the electrodes. However, this rechargeable lithium battery could never be made practical. Titanium disulfide was a poor choice, since it has to be synthesized under completely sealed conditions, also being quite expensive (~$1,000 per kilogram for titanium disulfide raw material in 1970s). When exposed to air, titanium disulfide reacts to form hydrogen sulfide compounds, which have an unpleasant odour and are toxic to most animals. For this, and other reasons, Exxon discontinued development of Whittingham's lithium-titanium disulfide battery.[24] Batteries with metallic lithium electrodes presented safety issues, as lithium is a highly reactive element; it ignites when exposed to water with formation of lithium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.[25] Under normal conditions it is a shiny metal that is passivated by lithium hydroxide, lithium carbonate, or lithium oxide and degrades in contact with both humid and dry air. As a result, research moved to develop batteries in which, instead of metallic lithium, only lithium compounds are present, being capable of accepting and releasing lithium ions.
Reversible intercalation in graphite[26][27] and intercalation into cathodic oxides[28][29] was discovered during 1974–76 by J. O. Besenhard at TU Munich. Besenhard proposed its application in lithium cells.[30][31] Electrolyte decomposition and solvent co-intercalation into graphite were severe early drawbacks for battery life.
It has been argued that lithium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy and dependent on batteries, but this perspective has also been criticised for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.[32]
1973 – Adam Heller Proposed the lithium thionyl chloride battery, still used in implanted medical devices and in defense systems where greater than a 20-year shelf life, high energy density, or extreme operating temperatures are encountered.[33]
1977 – Samar Basu demonstrated electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite at the University of Pennsylvania.[34][35] This led to the development of a workable lithium intercalated graphite electrode at Bell Labs (LiC
6)[36] to provide an alternative to the lithium metal electrode battery.
1979 – Working in separate groups, Ned A. Godshall et al.,[37][38][39] and the following year in 1980 and John Goodenough and Koichi Mizushima, both demonstrated a rechargeable lithium cell with voltage in the 4 V range using lithium cobalt dioxide (LiCoO
2) as the positive electrode and lithium metal as the negative electrode.[40][41] This innovation provided the positive electrode material that enabled early commercial lithium batteries. LiCoO
2 is a stable positive electrode material which acts as a donor of lithium ions, which means that it can be used with a negative electrode material other than lithium metal.[42] By enabling the use of stable and easy-to-handle negative electrode materials, LiCoO
2 enabled novel rechargeable battery systems. Godshall et al. further identified the similar value of ternary compound lithium-transition metal-oxides such as the spinel LiMn2O4, Li2MnO3, LiMnO2, LiFeO2, LiFe5O8, and LiFe5O4 (and later lithium-copper-oxide and lithium-nickel-oxide cathode materials in 1985)[43][43]
1980 – Rachid Yazami demonstrated the reversible electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite.[44][45] The organic electrolytes available at the time would decompose during charging with a graphite negative electrode. Yazami used a solid electrolyte to demonstrate that lithium could be reversibly intercalated in graphite through an electrochemical mechanism. (As of 2011, Yazami's graphite electrode was the most commonly used electrode in commercial Lion batteries).
The negative electrode has its origins in PAS (polyacenic semiconductive material) discovered by Tokio Yamabe and later by Shjzukuni Yata in the early 1980s.[46][47][48][49] The seed of this technology was the discovery of conductive polymers by Professor Hideki Shirakawa and his group, and it could also be seen as having started from the polyacetylene lithium ion battery developed by Alan MacDiarmid and Alan J. Heeger et al.[50]
1982 – Godshall et al. were awarded U.S. Patent 4,340,652[51] for the use of LiCoO2 as cathodes in lithium batteries, based on Godshall's Stanford University Ph.D. dissertation and 1979 publications.
1983 – Michael M. Thackeray, Peter Bruce, William David, and John B. Goodenough developed a manganese spinel as a commercially relevant charged cathode material for lithium-ion batteries.[52]
1985 – Akira Yoshino assembled a prototype cell using carbonaceous material into which lithium ions could be inserted as one electrode, and lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO
2) as the other.[53] This dramatically improved safety. LiCoO
2 enabled industrial-scale production and enabled the commercial lithium-ion battery.
1989 – Goodenough and Arumugam Manthiram showed that positive electrodes containing polyanions, e.g., sulfates, produce higher voltages than oxides due to the induction effect of the polyanion.[54]
1996 – Akshaya Padhi, KS Nanjundawamy and Goodenough identified LiFePO4 (LFP) as a cathode material.[55]
1998 – C. S. Johnson, J. T. Vaughey, M. M. Thackeray, T. E. Bofinger, and S. A. Hackney report the discovery of lithium-rich NMC cathode materials.[56]
2005 – Y Song, PY Zavalij, and M. Stanley Whittingham report a new two-electron vanadium phosphate cathode material with high energy density [57][58]
2016 – Z. Qi, and Gary Koenig reported a scalable method to produce sub-micrometer sized LiCoO
2 using a template-based approach.[59]
Commercial production
The performance and capacity of lithium-ion batteries increased as development progressed.
1991 – Sony and Asahi Kasei released the first commercial lithium-ion battery.[60]
1996 – Goodenough, Akshaya Padhi and coworkers proposed lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
4) and other phospho-olivines (lithium metal phosphates with the same structure as mineral olivine) as positive electrode materials.[61]
2001 – Christopher Johnson, Michael Thackeray, Khalil Amine, and Jaekook Kim file a patent[62][63] for NMC lithium rich cathodes based on a domain structure.
2001 – Zhonghua Lu and Jeff Dahn file a patent[64] for the lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) class of positive electrode materials, which offers safety and energy density improvements over the widely used lithium cobalt oxide.
2002 – Yet-Ming Chiang and his group at MIT showed a substantial improvement in the performance of lithium batteries by boosting the material's conductivity by doping it[65] with aluminium, niobium and zirconium. The exact mechanism causing the increase became the subject of widespread debate.[66]
2004 – Yet-Ming Chiang again increased performance by utilizing lithium iron phosphate particles of less than 100 nanometers in diameter. This decreased particle density almost one hundredfold, increased the positive electrode's surface area and improved capacity and performance. Commercialization led to a rapid growth in the market for higher capacity LIBs, as well as a patent infringement battle between Chiang and John Goodenough.[66]
2011 – Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) cathodes, developed at Argonne National Laboratory, are manufactured commercially by BASF in Ohio.[67]
2011 – Lithium-ion batteries accounted for 66% of all portable secondary (i.e., rechargeable) battery sales in Japan.[68]
2012 – John Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium ion battery.[10]
2014 – commercial batteries from Amprius Corp. reached 650 Wh/L (a 20% increase), using a silicon anode and were delivered to customers.[69] The National Academy of Engineering recognized John Goodenough, Yoshio Nishi, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino for their pioneering efforts in the field.[70]
As of 2016, global lithium-ion battery production capacity was 28 gigawatt-hours, with 16.4 GWh in China.[71]
Market
Industry produced about 660 million cylindrical lithium-ion cells in 2012; the 18650 size is by far the most popular for cylindrical cells. If Tesla were to have met its goal of shipping 40,000 Model S electric cars in 2014 and if the 85-kWh battery, which uses 7,104 of these cells, proved as popular overseas as it was in the U.S., a 2014 study projected that the Model S alone would use almost 40 percent of estimated global cylindrical battery production during 2014.[72] As of 2013, production was gradually shifting to higher-capacity 3,000+ mAh cells. Annual flat polymer cell demand was expected to exceed 700 million in 2013.[73][needs update]
In 2015 cost estimates ranged from $300–500/kWh[clarification needed].[74]
The average residential energy storage systems installation cost will drop from 1600 $/kWh in 2015 to 250 $/kWh by 2040 and it is expected to see the price with 70% reduction by 2030 [75].
For a Li-ion storage coupled with photovoltaics and an anaerobic digestion biogas power plant, Li-ion will generate a higher profit if it is cycled more frequently (hence a higher lifetime electricity output) although the lifetime is reduced due to degradation [76].
In 2016 GM revealed they would be paying US$145/kWh for the batteries in the Chevy Bolt EV.[77]
